Overview
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area and the most populous country in the world. Since its independence in 1947, India has been the world's most populous democracy.
Geography and Borders
India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. The country shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is near Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.
Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the English word "India" derives from Classical Latin India, which referred to a loosely-defined historical region of Asia stretching from South Asia to the borders of China. The term ultimately traces back to Sanskrit Sindhu, meaning "river," specifically the Indus River and its well-settled basin.
Within India, several alternative names are used. Bharat, mentioned in both Indian epic poetry and the Constitution of India, is a modern rendering of the historical name Bharatavarsha and has been used as a native name for India since the mid-19th century. Hindustan, a Middle Persian name that became popular by the 13th century, was used widely during the Mughal Empire era and can refer either to the northern Indian subcontinent or to India in its entirety.
Early History
Modern humans arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago. Their long occupation, initially as hunter-gatherers, made the region highly diverse, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.
Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus river basin around 9,000 years ago. Evidence of the neolithic period at Mehrgarh in Balochistan, Pakistan, dates to after 7000 BCE, where grain-producing plants and animals were domesticated. These cultures gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India. Centered around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, Ganweriwala, and Rakhigarhi, the civilization was characterized by standardized weights, steatite seals, a written script, urban planning, public works, and distinctive pottery and figurines.
Classical Period
Between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, an archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, diffused into India from the northwest. Its evidence is found in the Rig Veda, the oldest scripture associated with Hinduism, composed by Indo-Aryan-speaking tribes migrating from what is today northern Afghanistan and across the Punjab region. The settling of the Ganges river plain followed, with the Dravidian languages of India being supplanted in the north, creating a broad language family divide.
By 400 BCE, a second urbanization had taken place on the Ganges plain, and social differentiation by caste had emerged. During this period, Buddhism and Jainism arose as new ethical and social systems, both stressing non-violence and rejecting the hereditary varna system of Brahmanism.
Medieval and Early Modern Periods
In the 1st millennium, Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established on India's southern and western coasts. Early in the 2nd millennium, Muslim armies from Central Asia intermittently overran India's northern plains, leading to the formation of the Delhi Sultanate. In South India, the Vijayanagara Empire created a long-lasting composite Hindu culture, while Sikhism emerged in the Punjab as a religion rejecting institutionalized religion.
The Mughal Empire ushered in two centuries of economic expansion and relative peace, leaving a rich architectural legacy. British East India Company rule gradually expanded, turning India into a colonial economy while consolidating its sovereignty. British Crown rule began in 1858, introducing technological changes and modern ideas of education and public life.
Independence and Modern Era
A nationalist movement emerged in India, becoming the first in the non-European British Empire. Noted for nonviolent resistance after 1920, it became the primary factor in ending British rule. In 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two independent dominions: a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan. The partition was accompanied by large-scale loss of life and unprecedented migration.
India has been a federal republic since 1950, governed through a democratic parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual, and multi-ethnic society. India's population grew from 361 million in 1951 to over 1.4 billion in 2023. During this period, its nominal per capita income increased from US$64 annually to US$2,601, and its literacy rate rose from 16.6% to 74%.
Contemporary India
The Indian economy has become a fast-growing major economy and a hub for information technology, with an expanding middle class. India has reduced its poverty rate, though at the cost of increasing economic inequality. It is a nuclear-weapon state that ranks high in military expenditure.
India faces several challenges, including:
- Unresolved disputes over Kashmir with Pakistan and China, ongoing since the mid-20th century
- Gender inequality
- Child malnutrition
- Rising levels of air pollution
India's land is megadiverse with four biodiversity hotspots. The country's wildlife has traditionally been viewed with tolerance in its culture and is supported in protected habitats.